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Glossary
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| Below are some medical expressions commonly used when describing the applications of the PBK-2C system. |
| A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z |
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A Arthrosis: An arthrosis
is a joint, an area where two bones are attached for the purpose of
motion of body parts. An arthrosis (joint) is usually formed of fibrous
connective tissue and cartilage. Joints are grouped according to their
motion: a ball and socket joint; a hinge joint; a condyloid joint
(a joint that permits all forms of angular movement except axial rotation);
a pivot joint; gliding joint; and a saddle joint. C Chronic pain: Pain that persists or progresses over a long period of time. As opposed to acute pain Cytokines : are mediators which promote inflammation in all tissues.D E H Many hormones are secreted by specialized glands such as the thyroid gland. Hormones are essential for every activity of daily living, including the processes of digestion, metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood control. Many hormones, such as the neurotransmitters, are active in more than one physical process. Examples of hormones include aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone(ADH), cortisol, erythropoietin, estrogen, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), parathormone, progesterone, and testosterone. A hormone originally denoted a chemical made by a gland for export to another part of the body. Now a hormone is more broadly any chemical, irrespective of whether it is produced by a special gland or not, for export or domestic use, that "controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs.". The word "hormao" which means "I set in motion" or "I stir up" was used in ancient Greece to covey the "vital principle" of "getting the juices flowing." The word "hormone" was resurrected in 1902 (not 1906, as the Oxford English Dictionary states) by the English physiologists Wm. M. Bayliss and Ernest H. Starling who that year reported their discovery of a substance made by glands in the small intestine that stimulated pancreatic secretion. They called the substance "secretin" and dubbed it a "hormone", the first known hormone. I Inflammation: A basic way in which the body reacts to infection, irritation or other injury, the key feature being redness, warmth, swelling and pain. Inflammation is now recognized as a type of nonspecific immune response. More information: In technical terms, the inflammatory response directs immune system components to the site of injury or infection and is manifest by increased blood supply and vascular permeability which, in technical terms, allows chemotactic peptides, neutrophils, and mononuclear cells to leave the intravascular compartment. Microorganisms are engulfed by phagocytic cells (e.g., neutrophils and macrophages) in an attempt to contain the infection in a small-tissue space. The response includes attraction of phagocytes in a chemotactic gradient of microbial products, movement of the phagocyte to the inflammatory site and contact with the organism, phagocytosis (ingestion) of the organism, development of an oxidative burst directed toward the organism, fusion of the phagosome and lysosome with degranulation of lysosomal contents, and death and degradation of the organism. When quantitative or qualitative defects in neutrophil function result in infection, the infection usually is prolonged and recurrent and responds slowly to antimicrobial agents. Staphylococci, gram-negative organisms, and fungi are the usual pathogens responsible for these infections. History: Since antiquity (and to every medical student), the defining clinical features of inflammation have been known in Latin as rubor (redness), calor (warmth), tumor (swelling) and dolor (pain). These hallmarks of inflammation were first described by Celsus -- Aulus (Aurelius) Cornelius, a Roman physician and medical writer, who lived from about 30 B.C. to 45 A.D. Ischemia: Inadequate blood supply (circulation) to a local area due to blockage of the blood vessels to the area. L N Neural: Having to do with nerve cells. Neuropathy: Any and all disease or malfunction of the nerves. Neuropathic pain: Chronic pain resulting from injury to the nervous system. The injury can be to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or the peripheral nervous system (nerves outside the brain and spinal cord). Neuropathic pain can occur after trauma and many diseases such as multiple sclerosis and stroke. It is common and affects more than 3 million people in the US alone. This type of pain is notoriously difficult to treat.Nitric oxide: A compound that is toxic but which, paradoxically, plays a number of important roles in the body, including the following: • It acts as a vasodilator (blood vessel relaxant). • It therefore controls blood flow to tissues. • It regulates the binding and release of oxygen to hemoglobin. • It thereby controls the supply of oxygen to mitochondria (cell powerhouses that generate energy). • It kills parasitic organisms, virus-infected cells, and tumor cells (by inactivating respiratory chain enzymes in their mitochondria). • It stimulates the production of new mitochondria. The 1998 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology was awarded to Robert F. Furchgott, Ferid Murad, and Louis J. Ignarro for their discoveries of the role of nitric oxide in cardiovascular physiology. Nitric Oxide levels are increased following treatment with the PBK International System.
Osteoclasts : Destroy bone tissue Oxyhaemoglobin: See Haemoglobin
Peripheral neuropathy: A problem with the functioning of the nerves outside the spinal cord. Symptoms may include numbness, weakness, burning pain (especially at night), and loss of reflexes. The term peripheral neuropathy describes a problem with the functioning of the nerves outside of the spinal cord. The symptoms of a neuropathy may include numbness, weakness, burning pain (especially at night), and loss of reflexes. The pain may be severe and disabling. The treatment for peripheral neuropathy depends on its cause. Many
peripheral neuropathies can be treated by addressing the underlying
cause (such as vitamin deficiency). Others can be prevented from occurring.
For example, controlling diabetes may prevent diabetic neuropathy.
Still others can be corrected by surgery (for example carpal tunnel
syndrome). Neuropathies that are associated with immune diseases can
improve with treatment directed at the abnormal features of the immune
system. Protein: A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for the protein. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs. Each protein has unique functions. Proteins are essential components of muscles, skin, bones and the body as a whole. Examples of proteins include whole classes of important molecules, among them enzymes, hormones, and antibodies. Protein is one of the three types of nutrients used as energy sources by the body, the other two being carbohydrate and fat. Proteins and carbohydrates each provide 4 calories of energy per gram, while fats produce 9 calories per gram. The word "protein" was introduced into science by the great Swedish physician and chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) who also determined the atomic and molecular weights of thousands of substances, discovered several elements including selenium, first isolated silicon and titanium, and created the present system of writing chemical symbols and reactions. Prostate Cancer: a malignant (cancerous) tumor (growth) that consists of cells from the prostate gland. The tumor usually grows slowly and remains confined to the gland for many years. During this time, the tumor produces little or no symptoms or outward signs (abnormalities on physical examination). As the cancer advances, however, it can spread beyond the prostate into the surrounding tissues (local spread). Moreover, the cancer also can metastasize (spread even farther) throughout other areas of the body, such as the bones, lungs, and liver. Symptoms and signs, therefore, are more often associated with advanced prostate cancer. Physiology: The study of how living organisms function including such processes as nutrition, movement, and reproduction. The word "function" is important to the definition of physiology because physiology traditionally had to do with the function of living things while anatomy had to do with morphology, the shape and form, of things. Human physiology today is a science of wide scope: • Some physiological studies are concerned with processes that go on within cells such as phagocytosis, the process by which cells engulf and usually digest particles, bacteria and other microorganisms, and even harmful cells. The physiology of cells is called cell physiology. • Other physiological studies deal with how tissues and organs work, how they are controlled and interact with other tissues and organs and how they are integrated within the individual. • Yet other physiological studies deal with how we respond to our environment. For example, to extremes of temperature (in arctic conditions versus the desert), to changes in pressure (deep under the ocean versus weightless in space), etc. Human physiological processes are the functions of living persons and their parts, and the physical and chemical factors and processes involved. R Retinitis pigmentosa and congenital deafness: (Also called Usher syndrome.) A genetic disorder characterized by hearing impairment and an eye disorder called retinitis pigmentosa in which vision worsens over time. Some people with Usher syndrome also have balance problems. It is the most common disease that compromises both hearing and vision. More than half of all deaf-blind people have Usher syndrome. The syndrome is passed along in families by autosomal recessive inheritance, which requires two copies of the Usher gene for the disorder to be manifest. Each parent of a boy or girl with Usher syndrome has one standard and one mutated Usher gene. A child with the syndrome has received two mutated Usher genes, one from each parent. Rheumatoid Arthritis : What is rheumatoid arthritis? Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis can also cause inflammation of the tissue around the joints, as well as other organs in the body. Autoimmune diseases are illnesses which occur when the body tissues are mistakenly attacked by its own immune system. The immune system is a complex organization of cells and antibodies designed normally to "seek and destroy" invaders of the body, particularly infections. Patients with these diseases have antibodies in their blood which target their own body tissues, where they can be associated with inflammation. Because it can affect multiple other organs of the body, rheumatoid arthritis is referred to as a systemic illness and is sometimes called rheumatoid disease. While rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic illness, meaning it can last for years, patients may experience long periods without symptoms. Typically, however, rheumatoid arthritis is a progressive illness that has the potential to cause joint destruction and functional disability. A joint is where two bones meet to allow movement of body parts. Arthritis means joint inflammation. The joint inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis causes swelling, pain, stiffness, and redness in the joints. The inflammation of rheumatoid disease can also occur in tissues around the joints, such as the tendons, ligaments, and muscles. In some patients with rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation leads to the destruction of the cartilage, bone and ligaments causing deformity of the joints. Damage to the joints can occur early in the disease and be progressive. Moreover, studies have shown that the progressive damage to the joints does not necessarily correlate with the degree of pain, stiffness, or swelling present in the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis is a common rheumatic disease, affecting more than two million people in the United States. The disease is three times more common in women as in men. It afflicts people of all races equally. The disease can begin at any age, but most often starts after age forty and before sixty. In some families, multiple members can be affected, suggesting a genetic basis for the disorder. What causes rheumatoid arthritis? The cause of rheumatoid arthritis is unknown. Even though infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi have long been suspected, none has been proven as the cause. The cause of rheumatoid arthritis is a very active area of worldwide research. Some scientists believe that the tendency to develop rheumatoid arthritis may be genetically inherited. It is suspected that certain infections or factors in the environment might trigger the immune system to attack the body's own tissues, resulting in inflammation in various organs of the body such as the lungs or eyes. Regardless of the exact trigger, the result is an immune system that is geared up to promote inflammation in the joints and occasionally other tissues of the body. Immune cells, called lymphocytes, are activated and chemical messengers (cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor/TNF and interleukin-1/IL-1) are expressed in the inflamed areas. Environmental factors also seem to play some role in the cause of rheumatoid arthritis. Recently, scientists have reported that smoking tobacco increases the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. What are the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis? The symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis come and go, depending on the degree of tissue inflammation. When body tissues are inflamed, the disease is active. When tissue inflammation subsides, the disease is inactive (in remission). Remissions can occur spontaneously or with treatment, and can last weeks, months, or years. During remissions, symptoms of the disease disappear, and patients generally feel well. When the disease becomes active again (relapse), symptoms return. The return of disease activity and symptoms is called a flare. The course of rheumatoid arthritis varies from patient to patient, and periods of flares and remissions are typical. When the disease is active, symptoms can include fatigue, lack of appetite, low grade fever, muscle and joint aches, and stiffness. Muscle and joint stiffness are usually most notable in the morning and after periods of inactivity. Arthritis is common during disease flares. During flares, joints frequently become red, swollen, painful, and tender. This occurs because the lining tissue of the joint (synovium) becomes inflamed, resulting in the production of excessive joint fluid (synovial fluid). The synovium also thickens with inflammation (synovitis). In rheumatoid arthritis, multiple joints are usually inflamed in a symmetrical pattern (both sides of the body affected). The small joints of both the hands and wrists are often involved. Simple tasks of daily living, such as turning door knobs and opening jars can become difficult during flares. The small joints of the feet are also commonly involved. Occasionally, only one joint is inflamed. When only one joint is involved, the arthritis can mimic the joint inflammation caused by other forms of arthritis such as gout or joint infection. Chronic inflammation can cause damage to body tissues, cartilage and bone. This leads to a loss of cartilage and erosion and weakness of the bones as well as the muscles, resulting in joint deformity, destruction, and loss of function. Rarely, rheumatoid arthritis can even affect the joint that is responsible for the tightening our vocal cords to change the tone of our voice, the cricoarytenoid joint. When this joint is inflamed, it can cause hoarseness of voice. S T Vascular disease: A disease of blood vessels outside the heart. Peripheral vascular disease (PVD) affects the peripheral circulation, as opposed to the cardiac circulation. PVD comprises diseases of both peripheral arteries and peripheral veins. PVD is sometimes incorrectly used as a synonym for peripheral artery disease (PAD). Intermittent claudication due to inadequate blood flow to the leg is an example of peripheral artery disease (PAD) while varicose veins and spider veins are examples of peripheral vein disease. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): Vascular endothelial growth factor, a substance made by cells that stimulates the formation of new blood vessels, a process called angiogenesis. VEGF also acts as a mitogen for vascular endothelial (vessel lining) cells, stimulating these cells to divide and multiply. VEGF is a polypeptide structurally related to platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). The gene for VEGF is on chromosome 6p12. |
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